GLOSSARY (I´m sorry, but I am not able to make a table with this programme)


A

Abbreviation
An abbreviation (from Latin brevis "short") is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word "abbreviation" can itself be represented by the abbreviation "abbr." or "abbrev."

Affix
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes.

Allomorph
An allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without changing meaning. It is used in linguistics to explain the comprehension of variations in sound for a specific morpheme.

Allophones
In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds (phones) that belong to the same phoneme. A phoneme is an abstract unit of speech sound that can distinguish words: That is, changing a phoneme in a word can produce another word

Antonym
Antonyms, from the Greek anti ("opposite") and onoma ("name") are word pairs that are opposite in meaning, such as hot and cold, obese and skinny, and up and down.

Applied Text Linguistics
Applied linguistics puts linguistic theories into practice in areas such as foreign language teaching, speech therapy, translation, and speech pathology.

Aspiration
In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents.


B

Broad Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic transcription may aim to transcribe the phonology of a language, or it may wish to go further and specify the precise phonetic realisation. In all systems of transcription we may therefore distinguish between broad transcription and narrow transcription. Broad transcription indicates only the more noticeable phonetic features of an utterance


C

Circular Definition
A circular definition is one that assumes a prior understanding of the term being defined. By using the term(s) being defined as a part of the definition, a circular definition provides no new or useful information; either the audience already knows the meaning of the term(s), or the definition is deficient in including the term(s) to be defined in the definition itself.

Circumfix
A circumfix is an affix, a morpheme that is placed around another morpheme.

Concordance
A concordance is an alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or body of work, with their immediate contexts

Conjunction
In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, phrases, or clauses together.

Contextual definition
A term is defined by putting it in an appropriate way into its context.

Compound(ing)
compound is a word composed of more than one free morpheme.
D
Definition
A definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase.
Answeres the question “what?”

Derivation
In linguistics, derivation is "Used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine.

Devoicing
Final obstruent devoicing or terminal devoicing is a systematic phonological process occurring in languages such as German, Dutch, Polish, and Russian, among others. In these languages, voiced obstruents in the syllable coda or at the end of a word become voiceless.

Dictionary
A dictionary is a book of alphabetically listed words in a specific language, with definitions, etymologies, pronunciations, and other information;[1] or a book of alphabetically listed words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon.[1]

Differentia Specifica
Part of a standard dictionary definition. The Differentia Specifica gives specific information about the term which is defined
E
Early Modern English
Early Modern English is the stage of the English language used from about the end of the Middle English period (the latter half of the 15th century) to 1650.

Encyclopedia
An encyclopedia, or, traditionally, encyclopædia, is a comprehensive written compendium that contains information on all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge.

Etymology
Etymology is the study of the history of words — when they entered a language, from what source, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.

Explanation
An explanation is a statement which points to causes, context, and consequences of some object, process, state of affairs, etc., together with rules or laws that link these to the object.
Answeres the question “ why?”

External Structure
Splits the word up into its parts
F
Fricatives
Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together.
G
Genus Proximum
Part of a standard dictionary definition. It is a hyperonym of the term which is defined

Grapheme
In typography, a grapheme is the fundamental unit in written language. Graphemes include alphabetic letters, Chinese characters, numerals, punctuation marks, and all the individual symbols of any of the world's writing systems.

Great Vowel Shift
The Great Vowel Shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that took place in the south of England between 1200 and 1600.

Grimm´s Law
Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift or the Rask's-Grimm's rule) named for Jacob Grimm, is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic (PGmc, the common ancestor of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family) in the 1st millennium BC.
H
Homograph
A homograph is one of a group of words that share the same spelling but have different meanings.

Homonym
In linguistics, a homonym is one of a group of words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings

Homophone
A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning.

Hyperonym
The term Hypernym denotes a word, usually somewhat vague and broad in meaning, that other more specific words fall under or are fairly encompassed by.

Hyponym
In linguistics, a hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic range is included within that of another word.

Hypertext
Any document on the www, f.e. electronic dictionary, blog, e-commerce site, Google…
I
Idioms
An idiom is an expression, that is a term or phrase whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal definitions and the arrangement of its parts, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only through common use.

Indo- European
The Indo-European languages comprise a family of several hundred related languages and dialects,[1] including most of the major languages of Europe, the northern Indian subcontinent (South Asia), the Iranian plateau (Southwest Asia), and much of Central Asia.

Infix
An infix is an affix inserted inside an existing word.

Inflection
In grammar, inflection or inflexion is the modification or marking of a word (or more precisely lexeme) to reflect grammatical (that is, relational) information, such as gender, tense, number or person.

Internal Structure
Includes the Part of Speech

IPA
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)[I] is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.
L
Lexeme
A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of words that are different forms of the same word.

Lexical Morphology
Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the lexicon, which, morphologically conceived, is the collection of lexemes in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word-formation: derivation and compounding.

Lexicography
Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.
Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language and developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries. This is sometimes referred to as metalexicography.


Lexicon
In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions.

Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied.
M
Macrostructure
The Macrostructure is the organisation of the lexical entries in the body of a dictionary into lists, tree structures, networks

Megastructure
The Megastructure of a dictionary is the entire structure of the dictionary, including the front matter, abbreviations and explanations of grammar, the body of the dictionary

Mesostructure
The Mesostructure is the set of relations between lexical entries and other entries such as other parts of a dictionary or a text corps

Metadata
Metadata are data about data. An item of metadata may describe an individual datum, or content item, or a collection of data including multiple content items.

Metalanguage
In linguistics, a metalanguage is a language used to make statements about other languages (object languages).

Microstructure
The Microstructure is the consitent organisation of lexical information within lexical entries in the dictionary

Middle English
Middle English is the name given by historical linguistics to the diverse forms of the English language spoken between the Norman invasion of 1066 and the mid-to-late 15th century, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, began to become widespread, a process aided by the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in the 1470s, and slightly later by Richard Pynson. By this time the Northumbrian dialect spoken in south east Scotland was developing into the Scots language. The language of England as spoken after this time, up to 1650, is known as Early Modern English.

Modality
In semiotics, a modality is a particular way in which the information is to be encoded for presentation to humans, i.e. to the type of sign and to the status of reality ascribed to or claimed by a sign, text or genre

Morpheme
In morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning.

Morphology
Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words
N
Narrow Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic transcription may aim to transcribe the phonology of a language, or it may wish to go further and specify the precise phonetic realisation. In all systems of transcription we may therefore distinguish between broad transcription and narrow transcription. Narrow transcription encodes more information about the phonetic variations of the specific allophones in the utterance

Nucleus
In phonetics and phonology, the nucleus (sometimes called peak) is the central part of the syllable, most commonly a vowel.
O
Object Language
The language which one is talking about; words in dictionaries, spelling, pronunciation, etc.

Obstruent
In phonetics, articulation may be divided into two large classes, obstruents and sonorants. An obstruent is a consonant sound formed by obstructing outward airflow, causing increased air pressure in the vocal tract.

Old English
Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon,[1] Englisc by its speakers) is an early form of the English language that was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and southern Scotland between the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. What survives through writing represents primarily the literary register of Anglo-Saxon. It is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old Frisian. It also experienced heavy influence from Old Norse, a member of the related North Germanic group of languages.

Onomasiological dictionary
An Onomasiological dictionary is a writer´s dictionary

Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia (occasionally spelled onomateopoeia or onomatopœia) is a word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing, suggesting its source object, such as "click," "clang," "buzz," or animal noises such as "oink," "quack," "flap," "slurp," or "meow."

Ortography
The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of using a specific writing system to write the language.

Ostensive definition
An ostensive definition conveys the meaning of a term by pointing out examples.
P
Paradigmatics
Paradigmatic analysis is the analysis of paradigms embedded in the text rather than of the surface structure (syntax) of the text which is termed syntagmatic analysis.

Phonemes
In human language, a phoneme is the smallest structural unit that distinguishes meaning.

Phonetics
Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή (phonê) "sound" or "voice") is the study of the physical sounds of human speech.

Phonology
Phonology (Greek φωνή (phōnē), voice, sound + λόγος (lógos), word, speech, subject of discussion), is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a specific language (or languages).

Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated.

Proto- Germanic
Proto-Germanic (or Common Germanic, German Urgermanisch) is the hypothetical common ancestor (proto-language) of all the Germanic languages, which include, among others, modern English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Swedish.[1] The Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any surviving texts, but has been reconstructed using the comparative method.

Prefix
A prefix is the interal portion of some object or term (typically in text or speech) with a distinc and reused meaning that modifies the meaning of the whole object.


Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human language. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet (such as the International Phonetic Alphabet).
R
Recursive Definition
A recursive definition or inductive definition is one that defines something in terms of itself (that is, recursively), albeit in a useful way.
S
Semantics
Semantics (Greek sēmantikos, giving signs, significant, symptomatic meaning, from sēma (σῆμα), Sign (semiotics)) refers to aspects of meaning, as expressed in language or other systems of signs.

Semasiological dictionary
A Semsiological Dictionary is a reader´s dictionary

Semiotics
Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems. It includes the study of how meaning is constructed and understood.

Standard dictionary definition
X is a Y kind of Z

Stem
In linguistics, a stem (sometimes also theme) is the part of a word that is common to all its inflected variants. Stems are often roots, i.e. atomic (unanalyzable) lexical morphemes, but a stem can also be morphologically complex, as seen with compound words (cf. the compound nouns meat ball or bottle opener) or words with derivational morphemes

Suffix
In grammar, a suffix or ending is an affix which is placed at the end of a word.

Superfix
In linguistics, a superx is a type of affix where a suprasegmental change (such as tone or stress) modifies an existing morpheme's meaning. In many languages, they are used to differentiate between otherwise identical lexemes, but in some they are used derivationally or inflectionally.

Surface Structure
In the field of linguistics, specifically in syntax, surface structure (abbreviated 'SS' and often called 'S-structure') refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.

Syllable
A syllable (Ancient Greek: συλλαβή) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. It is typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants).

Synonyms
Synonyms are different words with identical or at least similar meanings.

Syntagmatic/ Syntax
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek συν- syn-, “together”, and τάξις táxis, “arrangement”) is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences, and which determine their relative grammaticality.
T
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification.

Text Corpora
In linguistics, a corpus (plural corpora) or text corpus is a large and structured set of texts (now usually electronically stored and processed).

Text Linguistics
Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems.

Thesaurus
A thesaurus is an indexed compilation of words with similar, related, and opposite meanings: for example, a book of jargon for a specialized field.

Tokenisation
A token is a categorized block of text. The block of text corresponding to the token is known as a lexeme. A lexical analyzer processes lexemes to categorize them according to function, giving them meaning. This assignment of meaning is known as tokenization.

Toponym
Toponymy refers to the scientific study of place-names (toponyms), their origins, meanings, use and typology.
W

Web- Portfolio
A web portfolio gives you an overview about all the terms and contents you have and will come across during the lecture

Website
A website (alternatively, web site or Web site) is a collection of Web pages, images, videos or other digital assets that is hosted on one or several Web server(s), usually accessible via the Internet, cell phone or a LAN.

Word
A word is a unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or more morphemes which are linked more or less tightly together, and has a phonetical value. Typically a word will consist of a root or stem and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined to create phrases, clauses, and sentences. A word consisting of two or more stems joined together form a compound. A word combined with another word or part of a word form a portmanteau.





sources: lectures by Mr. Gibbon, www.wikipedia.org

Introduction to Linguistics- 7.11.2007

PHONETICS: REALISING SOUNDS

Speech:
Production
Transmission
Perception


Phonetic domains: the Phonetic Cycle
● The Articulatory Domain
– The IPA (A = Alphabet / Association)
– The Source-Filter Model of Speech Production

● The Acoustic Domain
– The Speech Wave-Form
– Basic Speech Signal Parameters
– The Time Domain: the Speech Wave-Form
– The Frequency Domain: simple & complex signals
* Fourier Analysis: the Spectrum
* Pitch extraction
– Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion

● The Auditory Domain: Anatomy of the Ear


The domains of phonetics:
The articulatory organs:
– Lungs
– Vocal cords in the larynx (Adam’s Apple)

● Positions:
– Uvula
o with back of tongue
– Pharynx
o with velum (nasals)
– Velum (soft palate)
o contact with tongue: velars
– Palate (hard palate)
o with tongue
– Alveolar ridge
– Upper teeth
o with tongue
o with lower lip
– Upper lip
o with lower lip
o perhaps with tongue


Speech production: Source- Filter Model:

Description of sounds: two levels
● For general pronunciation representation in the lexicon:
– phonemic transcription
– just enough phonetic detail to distinguish words
● For detailed representation of speech pronunciation:
– phonetic transcription based on
o articulatory phonetics (about speech production)
– remember the other dimensions of speech description:
o acoustic phonetics (about speech wave transmission)
o auditory phonetics (about speech perception)

The ear:

How to make a dictionary- 15.1.2007

COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY

Criteria for Good Lexicography:

• Quantity:
– Completeness of coverage:
o extensional coverage: number of entries
o intensional coverage: number of types of lexical information

• Quality:
– Correctness of information:
o Types of lexical information
– Consistency of structure:
o Macrostructure
o Microstructure

o Mesostructure

Concordance :
• A KWIC (KeyWord In Context) concordance is a special kind of preliminary, corpusbased dictionary:
– each word in a text corpus is paired with its contexts of occurence in this corpus
• Note: Google is a special form of KWIC concordance
• Example text:
“My first sight of England was on a foggy March night in 1973 when I arrived on the midnight ferry from Calais.”

Alphabetically ordered KWIC:

Simplest KWIC procedure:
1. Corpus creation: make a corpus of texts in electronic format
2. Tokenisation (re-process each text):
- process punctuation marks
- break the text into context units (lines/sentences)
3. Keyword list extraction (all words in text)
4. Context collation (for each keyword)
5. Search for KWIC in corpus
6. Store output and format– for printing, hypertext (CD, web)

KWIC: Dictionary Making
• The function of a KWIC is
– to make searching for lexical information more efficient by putting context information about words in one place – for making “Word Sketches” (Adam Kilgarriff)
• grammatical descriptions: parts of speech
• dictionaries: examples of use, collocations, ...
• Project: Make concordances from your text corpora and use them to collect lexical information for your Toolbox lexical databases


The Status of Dictionaries:
• Remember that the dictionary is
– one of the three main components of language documentation:
• corpus of recordings and texts
• dictionary
• sketch grammar
– the central component of any linguistic description
– the most useful linguistic product for use by the speech community, or non-linguists in general

The Ibibio Dictionary:
• The Ibibio Dictionary
– uses information from Elaine Kaufmann's Ibibio Dictionary
– the information was re-typed into an Office table format
– this was converted into
• Toolbox format for further lexicographic extension
• LaTeX for formatting (cf. the Ibibio Concordance)• Project: extend the Ibibio corpus, concordance, dictionary in scope & context

QUIZ :
• What are the 6 main steps in KWIC
concordance construction?
• Explain each of these steps:

KWIC procedure: 1. Corpus collation
• My first sight of England was on a foggy March night in 1973 when I arrived on the midnight ferry from Calais.

KWIC procedure: 2. Tokenisation
• In the text:
My first sight of England was on a foggy March night in 1973 when I arrived on the midnight ferry from Calais.
• Process
– upper case (capital) letters
– punctuation marks
• To produce:
my first sight of england was on a foggy march night in 1973 when i arrived on the midnight ferry from calais

KWIC procedure: 3. Keyword List
• Replace each SP (space) sequence by a LF (linefeed) / NL (newline)
• Sort the list alphabetically
• Remove duplicate words

KWIC procedure: 4.Contexts

KWIC procedure: 5. Search
• For example:
– on is found in the middle of the following context
units:
• was on a
• arrived on the
– arrived is found in the middle of the following context
units:
• i arrived on
– etc.

KWIC procedure: 6. Output format

How to make a dictionary- 27.11.2007

TYPES OF LEXICAL INFORMATION: GRAMMAR (PARTS OF SPEECH CATEGORIES & SUBCATEGORIES)

● Types of lexical information: syntax
– Sentence structure - “syntax”, “phrasal syntax”
– Syntactic categories
o parts of speech (POS)
o subcategories
o phrasal categories

● The structure of language: constitutive relations:
– structural relations
o syntagmatic relations
o paradigmatic relations
– semiotic relations
o interpretation relations
o realisation relations

● Text structure - “text syntax”

Grammar:
● “Grammar” is a rather broad term
– It covers
o orthography
o phonology
o morphology
o syntax (sentence structure)
o lexical idiosyncrasies
– Sometimes “grammar” is restricted to mean just
o sentence structure.

● The term “syntax” originally meant structure
– However, “syntax” is also sometimes restricted to mean just
o sentence structure

● However there are other meanings:
– word grammar, word syntax
– text grammar, text syntax


Sentence structure:
● A structure is an arrangement of objects in a certain
orderin relation to each other.
● This applies to
– architecture
– traffic systems
– paintings
– music
– written and spoken language
– ...

● A structure consists of relations of two kinds:
– paradigmatic relations
o classificatory relations of similarity and difference between objects
– syntagmatic relations
o compositional relations between parts of a larger whole

● Sentences consist of
– Words
o and which are grouped into larger phrases
– Phrases
● which are grouped into
o even larger phrases
o and into sentences
– Sentences
● which may also be grouped into more complex sentences:
o with subordinate clauses
* relative clauses

* adverbial clauses
o or with coordinate clauses
* and
* but

* for


Definition of a sentence:
– Simple sentence:
● A sentence is a simple sentence
o The Pepsi worker allegedly assaulted the Coca-Cola employee.

– Coordinating sentence:
● A sentence is a sentence linked with a sentence by means of a
coordinating conjunction
o An assembly worker hid screws in a specially designed hiding place and took up to 7,000 home with him every day.

– Subordinating sentence:
● A sentence is a sentence with a subordinate simple sentence
(clause) inserted into it
o e.g. relative clause, adverbial clause
o A car dealership owner killed two employees because they kept asking for more pay.

– Exclusion condition:
● Nothing else is a sentence.

Syntactic categories (parts of speech):
● Nominal categories:
– Nouns
– Pronouns (special glue: co-reference)
– Articles
– Adjectives

● Verbal categories:
– Verbs
– Adverbs

● Glue categories:
– Prepositions (intra-sentence glue)
– Conjunctions (inter-sentence glue)
– Interjections (dialogue glue)

Syntagmatic relations in:

- Syllables

- Words

- Sentences

How to make a dictionary- 20.11.2007

TYPES OF LEXICAL INFORMATION: MORPHOLOGY (INFLECTION AND WORD FORMATION)

reasons for word formation:
- New concepts require new words
- Sometimes new words are invented on the spot

who needs word formation?:
- Scientists
- Engineers
- Product branding companies:
- Everybody
* including poets...

Branches of morphology:

Morphology:
- Inflection:
* Functionality (external structure):
o marks the relation of words to their contexts
o no change in the basic meaning of words
* Form (internal structure):
o affix (prefix, suffix, infix), superfix, stem vowel change

- Word formation:
* Functionality (external structure):
o creation of new words / parts of speech / meanings

o in principle infinite extendability of the lexicon
* Form (internal structure):
o Root/morpheme creation (blending, abbreviation, ...)

o Derivation: 1 stem + affix (prefix, suffix, infix), superfix, vowel change
o Compounding: 2 stems, perhaps with interfix or inflection-like affix

- Morphemes are:
* smallest meaningful parts of words
- There are 2 main morpheme types:
* lexical morpheme (content morpheme, root):
o open set: girl, boy, car, box, spoon, grass, sky
* grammatical morpheme (structural morpheme):
o closed set

~ free: grammatical words: prepositions, conjunctions,auxiliary verbs

~bound: affixes, suffixes (inflection and derivation)

Properties of inflection:
- External structure:
* marks the syntagmatic relation of words to their contexts
o syntactic contexts (agreement in person, number, case):
~ subject-verb (English)
~ subject verb; determiner - adjective - noun, preposition-nominals (German)
o situational contexts:
~ Verbs: temporal relations, spatial relations
~ Nominals: quantity and definiteness relations

- Internal structure: stem + affix
* Prefix
* Suffix
* Circumfix
* Infix
* superfix

Construction of inflected words:
- a stem + an inflection

* the stem has lexical meaning, e.g.:
o table, chair, cabbage, happiness, wonderful, blog
* the inflection has grammatical meaning
o relates a word to its syntactic context:

~ subject-verb agreement (person, case, number)
o relates a word to its semantic context:
~ tense/time, quantity, speaker-addressee, ...

o e.g.: cats, dogs, horses, sheep, oxen, men, women, children

How words are built - form + function:

- Derivation:
* derivations (based on one root):
o unable, impossible, antidisestablishmentarianism
o skilful, reddish, happiness
* Internal structure of derivations:
o 1 stem + affixes: prefix, suffix, circumfix, infix, superfix
* External structure of derivations:
o suffixes in English may create new Parts of Speech (POS)
o all affixes create new meanings

- Derivations consist of one stem with an affix.
* However, the stem itself may consist of a stem with an affix

* Therefore the stem has to be defined in a recursive definition

- A stem is :
* a root (simplest case)
* a stem plus an affix (complex cases)

Example: beautifully

stem = root = beauty
stem = stem + affix = beauty + ful
stem = stem + affix = beauty + ful + ly

Another example: Work out the derivation of antidisestablishmentarianism

- Compounding:

* Form (internal structure): from at least 2 existing stems
o lamp-post
o whisky-soda
o red-head

Four main types of compound:
- endocentric (tatpurusa):
* jam-jar, honeypot, harddisk, bus-stop, ...
o An armchair is a chair
- bicentric (dvandva):
* fighter-bomber, gentleman-farmer
o whisky-soda: A whisky-soda is a whisky and a soda.
- exocentric (bahuvrihi):
* blue-stocking, redskin,
o red-head: A redhead has a red head.
- synthetic compounds (both derivation and compound): bus-driver, steam-roller

- compounding: a stem plus another stem
- three main types:
* endocentric: armchair An armchair is a chair.
* bicentric: whisky-soda A whisky-soda is whisky and soda.
* exocentric: red-head A redhead has a red head.
- Synthetic compounds combine compounds and derivations:
* a derivation plus a stem, e.g.:
~ bus-driver
~ steam-roller

A hierarchy of words and their parts:

Some simplex and complex words:
- simplex:
* oh, ah, eh, oo, I, err, owe, ewe
* pa, ma, far, car, star
- complex:
* blends, abbreviations (simplex roots based on more than one stem):
o brunch, ... ; NATO, ...
* derivations (based on one root):
o unable, impossible, happiness, antidisestablishmentarianism
o temerity, antidisestablishmentarianism
* compounds (based on more than one root/stem):
o tatpurusa (endocentric): jam-jar, honeypot, harddisk, bus-stop, ...
o dvandva (bicentric): whisky-soda, gentleman-farmer, ...bahuvrihi (exocentric): red-head, redskin, blue

-stocking, ...

How to make a dictionary- 13.11.2007

TYPES OF LEXICAL INFORMATION: PRONOUNCIATION

surface structure:
-2 levels: (1) linguistic description--> metalanguage
(2) units of language--> object language

-surface structure of:

* dictionaries--> metalanguage: the typography and layout of a book, hypertext…

* words in dictionaries--> object language: spelling, pronounciation…

metalanguage: language to speak about another language
f.e.: german (= metalanguage) used to talk about english (= object language)

semasiological dictionary--> metalanguage (f.e. headword)
onomasiological dictionary--> object language

Transcription: different views of sounds:
(1) Narrow phonetic transcription (1 and 2 more important, than 3 and 4)
(2) Phonemic representation
(3) Broad phonetic transcription
(4) Morphonemic representation

Goals: (1) represent as many phonetic details of phones (i.e. the allophones of phonemes) as needed
(2) represent phonemes (generalised from allophones using only information on phonetic context) needed
in the lexicon
(3) represent phonemes (generalised from allophones using information on phonetic context) as they
occur in texts
(4) represent morphophonemes (generalised from phonemes with additional information on morphological context) aas they occur in grammatical contexts

Phonemic transcription:
- the transcription used in dictionaries
- preferably in IPA ( not in “ad hoc” pseudo-spelling)
- the minimum amount of pronounciation
* to distinguish words
* for a native (or other competent) speaker of the language

Phonetic transcription:
- the transcription used to give as many details of pronunciation as possible
- actual pronunciation of phonemes (varies in different contexts)

For phonemic pronunciation representation in the lexicon:
- phonemic transcription
- just enough phonetic detail to distinguish words

For detailed phonetic representation of pronunciation:
- phonetic transcription based on
- articulatory phonetics (about speech production)
- remember the other dimensions of speech description:
* acoustic phonetics (about speech wave transmission)
* auditory phonetics (about speech perception)

Sounds in dictionaries:
Prosodic hierarchy:

Phonemes:
Function: smallest word- distinguishing segments

Internal structure: configurations of distinctive phonetic features

External structure:smallest part of syllables

Rendering: contextual variants, allophones

Syllables:

Function: word distinguishing phoneme configuration

Internal structure: configurations of sequential features and simultaneous features

External structure: (word)

Rendering: a function of the rendering of phonemes

Phonemes:
Several ways of defining phonemes:
(1) the minimal word- distinguishing sound segment
(2) the smallest unit of a syllable
(3) consists of dictinctive features
(4) consits of a set of allophones

English syllables: basics:
- Basic syllable structure: CCCVVCCC, e.g. /streIndZ/ - but affricates /dZ/ count as 1 phoneme, though phonetically they have 2 parts
- More detailed syllable structure- like a map: this kind of map is sometimes called a “transition network” or a “state diagramme”
--> each transition from one circle/ pode/ state describes the correct position of one phoneme

Spelling- to- sound rules:
- spelling: VISUAL modality
* ghoti à pronounced: fish
- I before e except after c, consonant doubling

More about English Syllable Structure:

How to make a dictionary - 6.11.2007

LEXICAL DATABASES


Semasiological dictionaries:

– the basic form is a table
● the rows are lexical entries, with a specific microstructure
● the columns are single types of lexical information

– if the orthography or phonology of a lexical item is
ambiguous, then

● either the item is repeated with the new information

● or a sub-table is created

– but this depends on the kind of ambiguity:

● homonymy (homography, homophony)
● polysemy

Homonym --> spelling & pronounciation of two words are the same

Homograph --> spelling the same & pronounciation different

Homophom --> spelling different & pronounciation the same

The basic model of a table:
- Table: a list of rows
- Row: a list of fields
- Column: a list of fields in the same row position

Illustration of table construction in OpenOffice/ MS-Excel: